Speed Development

Speed is an important factor for success in athletics.
Faster athletes will be able to get to the ball first, elude
defenders, score, or catch the person with the ball more
effectively. Running speed is so important that it is frequently
used to evaluate athletic potential. While you will see that some
aspects of speed are genetic, or inherited, there are certain
things you can do to develop and improve an athlete's ability to
run fast.

Before talking about how to improve speed it is important to first
understand the factors that influence speed. There are many things
that impact speed, including:

The structural make-up of the athlete’s muscles;
How well the muscles are able to use fuel; Flexibility; Fatigue;
Stride length and stride frequency; and Technique.

Let’s look at each of these factors.

Muscle Structure and Make-up
Muscles are made up of a combination of fast-twitch and slow-twitch
fibers. Fast-twitch fibers contract rapidly and forcefully while
slow-twitch fibers contract more slowly and with lower levels of
force. However, slow-twitch fibers do not fatigue as rapidly as the
fast-twitch fibers. Different muscles, even within the same
athlete, will have different percentages of fast and slow twitch
fibers. Similarly, every athlete will have different percentages of
fast and slow twitch fibers in a given muscle. If all other things
are equal, athletes with longer muscle fibers and a greater
percentage of fast-twitch fibers should have the ability to run
faster than athletes with shorter slow twitch fibers.

Using Fuel
ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate) is the substance that drives muscle
contraction and there are three different “energy pathways” that
the body can use to create ATP. These three systems are the
creatine phosphate system (CP), the glycolitic/anaerobic system and
the oxidative/aerobic system. The energy pathway that provides ATP
for muscle contraction depends mainly on the intensity and the
duration of the activity being performed. The CP energy pathway has
the greatest impact on speed since it produces ATP rapidly, but
only for a short period of time. Speed depends on how much ATP is
on hand in the working muscles and on how much CP is available to
create “new” ATP as it is used.

Flexibility
Flexibility is also important for speed development and injury
prevention; it is important that the limbs be able to travel
through a full range of motion without impediment to make the
running movement fluid and efficient. To develop speed a runner
should emphasize improving flexibility at the hip, the thigh
muscles, and the muscles of the lower leg. While static stretching
can be done, it is usually more effective to combine static
stretching with dynamic stretching. This will allow greater
carryover to the running movement and speed development. Being
flexible will also allow a runner to increase stride length and
stride frequency.

Fatigue
Muscle fatigue occurs after repeated contractions because ATP is
depleted and metabolic waste products accumulate in the muscle. As
you might imagine, fatigue interferes with a muscle’s ability to
contract and negatively impacts technique. Just as you would not
want to perform Olympic-style lifts or lift heavy weights when
fatigued, performing speed work under fatigued conditions will
reinforce improper technique and possibly lead to injury. Speed
work should be performed when the athlete is fresh so that he may
learn good technique and run quickly. When fatigue sets in and
performance of the exercises begins to suffer, the speed workout
should be terminated for that day.

Stride Length and Stride Rate
Stride length refers to the distance a runner’s center of mass
travels with each stride. Stride frequency refers to the number of
foot contacts that are made per unit of time. Both stride frequency
and stride length directly contribute to running speed.
Essentially, Speed = Stride Length x Stride Frequency. From this
equation it should be obvious that speed will increase if an
athlete is able to take longer strides while maintaining stride
frequency. Both stride length and frequency are trainable. With
this said, it is important to realize that you reach a point of
diminishing returns if you increase your stride length too much.

Technique
Finally, proper technique is paramount to performance, and poor
technique is actually the limiting factor in most athletes’ speed
development. Good technique will allow a runner to move his or her
limbs quickly and safely. Poor technique will result in poor
movement efficiency, braking forces, and the overloading of certain
muscles and joints that could possibly lead to injury. As technique
is probably the most trainable and essential component mentioned
above, the rest of this article will examine good running
technique.

Sprint Technique
Speed performance will largely depend on the ability to improve the
functioning of the nervous system and the coordination of muscles
used to produce a movement pattern. The ability to coordinate
muscle actions directly impacts technique. Failure to coordinate
the muscles quickly and efficiently will result in slow speeds and
possible injury.

Each leg has support and recovery phases. The support phase begins
when the foot hits the ground and lasts until it breaks contact
with the ground. The recovery phase begins when the foot breaks
contact with the ground and lasts until it again makes contact with
the ground.

In the support phase, the leading foot should land on the ground
slightly ahead of the athlete’s center of gravity (slightly in
front of the hips). The foot should be driven down towards the
ground by the hip extensor muscles; the hamstrings and gluteal
muscles should be performing the majority of the work during the
hip extension. The quadriceps (knee extensors) are also important
at foot contact since they keep the athlete’s knee from flexing
excessively and dissipating elastic energy. As the foot contacts
the ground it should be dorsiflexed, with the big toe pulled up
towards the shinbone. This helps to maximize the amount of energy
that can be stored by the calf muscles and then released to
generate propulsion in a later phase of the running stride. The
outside of the forefoot, not the heel, should contact the ground.

The athlete should then think about pulling himself over the
support foot. The athlete should continue exerting force with the
hip and knee extensors until his center of gravity passes over the
support foot. At this point, the runner should focus on
plantarflexing the foot (pointing the toes) with the calf muscles.
When the toes leave the ground, the support phase has ended.

As an athlete enters the recovery phase, the ankle should
immediately be dorsiflexed with the big toe pulled up toward the
shin. As the foot leaves the ground, the athlete should flex the
knee and bring the heel up towards the hips/ buttocks as quickly as
possible. This helps to “make the leg shorter” and allows the
athlete to swing the recovery leg forward faster than he or she
could if the limb was kept straight during the recovery phase.
Remember, speed is what we are looking for, so even relatively
“small” things like flexing the leg can help a runner gain valuable
time in a race or competition.

As the heel is drawn towards the hip, the leg should be swung
forward. The athlete should imagine he is trying to step over the
opposite knee with the ankle. This will keep the leg “short” and
speed high for as long as possible. As the ankle steps over the
opposite knee the athlete should begin unfolding, or extending, the
swing leg. It should be noted that the hip and knee extension that
occur during this phase are due to a transfer of momentum, not an
active contraction of the lower limb muscles. As the leg unfolds
and the athlete prepares for the next support phase, he should
focus on again activating the hip extensors to drive the foot down
toward the ground.

In addition to the lower body action, there are a few other
pointers that an athlete should focus on. The first of these is
posture. The athlete should run with the trunk erect. The head
should be level and the hips should remain tall with very little
vertical movement. Second, arm swing contributes to running speed.
The athlete should focus on driving the arms both backward and
forward to provide balance and generate momentum. The elbow angle
should range from 60 degrees in front to 140 degrees in back and
the athlete should avoid swinging the arms across the midline of
the body.

Obviously an athlete has to think about a lot of things going on in
a short period of time when sprinting. This can be an overwhelming
skill for many athletes to learn. Drills are a valuable tool and
can aid the athlete in the learning and perfecting of specific
running skills. Drills can help in the development of “ideal”
sprinting technique and speed. Note that while drills are important
in the development of technique, and while they serve as a useful
tool in the warm up, they are not a substitute for actual running
and sprint training. By definition, drills are a part of the
movement. Remember that the entire skill must be put together and
practiced in order for an athlete to become faster.

Summary
Being able to run fast is extremely important for success in many
sports. While many factors may be trained to help improve running
speed, technique is one of the most trainable and one of the most
important. Solid technique will result in a faster, more efficient
runner. Poor technique will limit an athlete’s speed. To help an
athlete master the skill, the sprinting motion may be broken down
into drills that train parts of the motion. Drills simplify a
complicated skill, helping with mastery. They may also serve as
warm up and conditioning exercises.

References
Barbaro R. (2000). Elements of speed development. In Jarver, J.
(Ed.) Sprints and Relays 5th Edition. Mountain View, CA: TAFNEWS
Press, pg. 15 – 18.
Cunningham M. (2001). Pure speed training. Coaches Review, 74(2):26 – 28.
Faccioni A. (1995). Assisted and resisted methods for speed
development. In Jarver, J. (Ed.) Sprints and Relays 4th Edition.
Mountain View, CA: TAFNEWS Press, pg. 63 – 69.
Jarver J. (1978). Sprinting in a nutshell. In Jarver, J. (Ed.)
Sprints and Relays 1st Edition. Mountain View, CA: TAFNEWS Press,
pg. 9 – 13.
Kumagai K, Abe T, Brechue WF, Ryoshi T, Takano S, Mizuno M. (2000).
Sprint performance is related to muscle fascicle length in male
100-m sprinters. Journal of Applied Physiology, 88:811 – 816.
McFarlane B. (1995). Speed … A basic and advanced technical model.
In Jarver, J. (Ed.) Sprints and Relays 4th Edition. Mountain View,
CA: TAFNEWS Press, pg. 14 – 19.
McFarlane B. (1987). A look inside the biomechanics of speed. NSCA
Journal, 9(5):35 – 42.
USA Track and Field. (2001). Coaching Education Program Level II
Course: Sprints, Hurdles, Relays.
West T, Robson S. (2000). Running drills—are we reaping the
benefits? In Jarver J. (Ed.) Sprints and Relays 5th Edition.
Mountain View, CA: TAFNEWS Press, pg. 64 – 67.
John M. Cissik: Technique and Speed Development for Running

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Youth Strength Training

The development of muscular strength in children has received increasing public and medical attention in recent years. Despite the previously held belief that strength training was unsafe and ineffective for children, major health organizations such as the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) , the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) and the National Strength and Conditioning Association(NSCA) now support children's participation in appropriately designed and competently supervised strength training programs. In addition to increasing the muscular strength of young weight trainers, regular participation in a strength training program may improve a child's muscular endurance, body composition and sports performance. Further, participation in a preseason speed, agility, quickness program that includes strength training may reduce the possibility of overuse injuries in youth sports. It is important to remember that strength training is an activity which is distinct from the competitive sports of weight lifting and powerlifting. The term strength training refers to a method of conditioning which is designed to increase an individual's ability to exert or resist force. Weight lifting and powerlifting, on the other hand, are sports in which individual's often train at high intensities and attempt to lift maximal amounts of weight in competition. The goal of youth strength training is not to see which child is the strongest, but rather to improve the musculoskeletal strength of all children while exposing them to a variety of safe and effective training methods that are fun. The most common concern associated with youth strength training is the belief that this type of exercise will cause damage the growth plates of children. Although a few case study reports have indeed noted growth plate fractures in children who lifted weights, most of these injuries occurred as a result of improper training, excessive loading or lack of qualified adult supervision. Typically children were injured while they attempted to lift maximal amount of weight overhead in an unsupervised environment. Growth plate injuries have not occurred in any prospective youth strength training study that followed established training guidelines. In fact, recent findings suggest that strength training during childhood and adolescence may actually make bones stronger. At this time there is no scientific evidence to suggest that youth strength training is riskier than any other sport or activity in which children routinely participate. When designing strength training programs for children it is important to remember that children are not miniature adults. Children are anatomically, physiologically, and psychologically immature, and this uniqueness must be considered when developing youth strength training programs. Adult strength training guidelines and training philosophies should not be imposed on children. Although all participants should understand the risks and benefits of strength training, a young child should not be expected to comprehend the intricacies of muscle action. Focus on lifetime fitness and teach kids how to exercise properly. Above all, provide a stimulating program that develops in children amore positive attitude towards strength training and a healthy lifestyle. Generally speaking, if 7 and 8 year old children are ready for participation in organized sports or activities (e.g. little league baseball or gymnastics), then they are ready for some type of strength training. The focus of each training session should be on proper form and technique. Above all else, all youth strength training programs must be supervised at all times by experienced trainers. A summary of youth strength training guidelines from the NSCA are presented below.

Youth Strength Training Guidelines: • An instructor to child ratio of at least 1 to 10 is recommended to provide adequate supervision and instruction. When children are learning exercises for the first time, closer supervision may be required. • Children learn best by doing. When teaching a new exercise to a child, have the child perform the exercise under your watchful eye. • Ensure that the training environment is free of hazards. Be aware of the exploratory nature of children and remove or disassemble any broken equipment from the exercise room before classes start. • The exercise room should be well lit and adequately ventilated. Since children are more prone to heat illness than adults, encouraged them to drink water even if they are not thirsty. • Perform calisthenics and stretches before and after every strength training class • Begin with 1 set of 10 to 15 repetitions on 6 to 8 exercises that focus on the major muscle groups of the upper and lower body. Start with a relatively light weight and high reps and increase the load and decrease the reps as strength improves. Beginning with relatively light loads will allow for appropriate adjustments to be made. • Maximal lifting is not recommended for general conditioning purposes. • Two to three training sessions per week on nonconsecutive days is sufficient. • Increase the weight gradually as strength improves. Generally a two to five pound increase in weight is consistent with a 5% to 10% increase in training intensity. • Progression can also be achieved by increasing the number of sets ( up to 3) or number of exercises. • Multijoint exercises such as squats may be introduced into the program based on individual needs and competencies • Treat children with respect and speak with them in a language they understand. Remember that children should feel comfortable with the program and should look forward to the next workout. • Strength training should be one part of a total fitness program. Keep the fun in fitness and promote lifetime health.
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Strength Training: OK for kids when done correctly

Strength training for kids is OK. But bodybuilding is dangerous. Know the differences and follow these guidelines to keep your kids safe.

The young athlete in your family is disciplined and devoted, squeezing in practice whenever he or she can. Now your child wants to start strength training. You've heard coaches and other parents talk about strength training, but you wonder — is strength training really good for a child?

The answer is yes. Strength training exercises that are supervised, safe and age-appropriate offer many bonuses to young athletes.

The American Academy of Pediatrics, the American College of Sports Medicine, and the National Strength and Conditioning Association all support strength training for kids — if it's done properly. Today's children are increasingly overweight and out of shape. Strength training can help put them on the lifetime path to better health and fitness.

Strength training, not weightlifting

Strength training for kids — not to be confused with weightlifting, bodybuilding or powerlifting — is a carefully designed program of exercises to increase muscle strength and endurance. Weightlifting, bodybuilding and powerlifting are largely driven by competition, with participants vying to lift heavier weights or build bigger muscles than other athletes. This can put too much strain on young muscles, tendons and growth plates, especially when proper technique is sacrificed in favor of lifting larger amounts of weight.

Strength training for kids, however, isn't about lifting the heaviest weight possible. Instead, the focus is on lighter weights and controlled movements, with a special emphasis on proper technique and safety.

Your child can build muscle strength using:

Benefits for young athletes

Strength training for kids has gotten a bad reputation over the years. Lifting weights, for example, was once thought to damage young growth plates — areas of cartilage that have not yet turned to bone. Experts now realize that with good technique and the right amount of resistance, young athletes can avoid growth plate injuries. Strengthening exercises, with proper training and supervision, provide many benefits to a young athlete.

Supervised strength training that emphasizes proper technique:

Your child may gain other health benefits from strength training, too. These include:

Some studies suggest that improved self-esteem and a decreased chance of depression also are upshots of strength training. Your child may get a feel-good boost after improving his or her performance.

Who benefits most?

Strength training benefits older preteens more than younger kids. At the age of 5 to 6, kids should be focusing on body awareness and body control, balance, running, jumping and throwing.

Strength training also helps those kids who have a focused interest in a particular sport. For example, a figure skater or dancer who has a goal of jumping higher can improve with strength training. Football players, soccer players — just about all young athletes — can enhance their performance with a strength training program.

Because technique and proper form are so important, don't let your child begin strength training until he or she is mature enough to accept directions. A good rule of thumb is if your child is old enough to participate in organized sports, such as hockey, soccer or gymnastics, he or she is ready for some form of strength training.

Guidelines for youth strength training

The right strength training program for your child isn't just a scaled-down version of what an adult would do. Many adult programs focus on fewer repetitions and heavier weights. A youth strength training program needs to focus on:

Your child's coach can tailor a strength training program for your child according to your child's age, size, skills and sports interests. The general principles of youth strength training are:

Results won't come overnight. But over time, you and your child will notice a difference in your child's muscle strength and endurance.

A healthy habit for a lifetime

If your child shows an interest in strength training, know that it can be a safe and effective activity. Along with aerobic exercise, stretching, and balance and stability, strength training is one part of a well-rounded fitness program. Encourage physical activity in your child — it's a key step to becoming a healthy adult.

Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research (MFMER).